The Will of a Woman from an Ancient Egyptian Village

When Ancient Egypt is mentioned, what often comes to mind are the pharaohs and their extraordinary achievements—from their triumphs on the battlefield to their magnificent architectural works, such as the Pyramids of Giza, the royal tombs of the Valley of the Kings, and the temples of Karnak, Luxor, and Abu Simbel. School curricula and documentaries usually focus on these iconic feats, portraying the ancient Egyptians as almost superhuman. Yet beyond their monuments, much less is known about their everyday lives—their family relations, social structures, and human emotions that, in many ways, mirror our own.

Much of what we know about ordinary life in Ancient Egypt comes from archaeological excavations at residential sites like Deir el-Medina, a village on the west bank of the Nile opposite Luxor. Nestled in a desert valley between cliffs, the site lies between the Ramesseum—the mortuary temple of Ramses II—and Medinet Habu, built for Ramses III. Deir el-Medina was home to the skilled craftsmen and laborers who carved and decorated the royal tombs of the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens, from the early 18th Dynasty until the end of the Ramesside period (c. 1550–1069 BCE).

No other site has revealed as much about the daily reality of ancient Egyptians as Deir el-Medina. Archaeologists have uncovered remarkably preserved houses, family shrines, cemeteries, and thousands of documents—papyri and ostraca (pottery fragments or limestone flakes)—that record every aspect of life. These include letters, accounts, sketches, and personal notes showing how Egyptians balanced work, worship, and home life. The village also contained temples dedicated to gods and to deified royal figures such as Amenhotep I and his mother, Ahmose-Nefertari, long revered as protective patrons of the community.

One of the most significant discoveries at the site came from a large pit north of the village. Initially dug by residents in search of water, it later became a refuse dump. Excavations there uncovered thousands of ostraca containing not only administrative records, but also stories, prayers, and lists that offer a vivid view of community life—covering everything from laws, food, and wages to marriage, divorce, and local disputes. Even details of the first known workers’ strikes in ancient history were recorded there, triggered by delays in wages and rations.

Archaeological evidence shows that Deir el-Medina was established during the reign of Thutmose I (c. 1503–1491 BCE), possibly inspired by Amenhotep I, who after his death became the village’s patron god. For centuries it remained a bustling center of work and family until Pharaoh Akhenaten’s religious reforms forced its temporary abandonment when he moved the capital to Amarna. It was later revived under Horemheb and expanded further in subsequent reigns.

Under Ramses II (c. 1279–1212 BCE), Deir el-Medina reached its zenith. Stretching about 130 meters long and 50 meters wide, it contained around 120 whitewashed houses arranged along a main street with narrow side alleys. Despite their similar structure, these homes reflected vibrant family life—spaces of devotion, discipline, and artistry. Households often contained small shrines with figures of ancestors or protective deities, reflecting both pride and piety. Daily routines ran with remarkable order yet carried the same human tensions captured in the surviving papyri.

Most workers spent the week laboring inside the royal tombs, returning home only on weekends. To avoid long daily walks across rugged terrain, they built simple stone huts near their work sites—early examples of temporary labor camps in ancient Egypt. Excavations of these structures reveal an organized system of labor and rest. Meanwhile, women managed households and cared for children, forming the stable core of village life.

Among Deir el-Medina’s many known personalities, one figure stands out: Naunakhte, a remarkable woman whose voice speaks clearly across three millennia. Her will—preserved on a papyrus dated to the reign of Ramses V (12th century BCE)—is one of the most revealing social and legal documents from Ancient Egypt.

Naunakhte was a middle-class woman married to a senior tomb worker named Khaemnun. Her will tells us she was the mother of eight children—but she divided her inheritance unequally. Five children who cared for her during life each received a share, while three were disinherited because, in her words, “they did not care for me when I was alive.”

Her decision reflects the considerable legal and economic rights women held in ancient Egypt. Naunakhte owned property and had full authority to distribute—or withhold—it as she saw fit. Her will was prepared in the presence of witnesses and village scribes, demonstrating a well-developed local legal system. More than that, it offers a rare, personal glimpse of a woman who knew her worth—a mother demanding justice, independence, and dignity within her community.

Naunakhte’s story reminds us that Deir el-Medina’s history is not only one of men crafting tombs for kings, but also one of women shaping the moral and social fabric of their society. Her voice, like those of countless others, shows that history’s greatest civilizations were built not just by rulers and priests, but also by workers, families, and mothers whose choices and words still resonate today.